World War II surpassed World War I in scale and brought a new era of warfare. It initiated total war with altogether new approach by attacking country’s economy infrastructure and civilian population and by mobilizing massive resources.29  The major partners (the U.S.A., the Soviet Union, Germany, Britain and Japan) produced armaments in awesome quantities, including at least 220,000 tanks and 840,000 aircrafts. It is estimated that 54 million people – soldiers and civilians fell victim to front line battle, aerial bombing, concentration camp mass murders, repression of uprisings, disease and hunger.30  War death claimed 10-20 percent of the total population in the USSR, Poland and Yugoslavia; 4-6 percent in Germany, Italy, Japan and China and about 1 percent in Britain, France and the United States. First World War estimatigly uprooted 40 million in Europe – not excluding 11 million foreign forced labourers stranded in Germany or 14 million Germans expelled from Eastern Europe.31  In Asia, the Japanese occupation of China left about 50 million Chinese homeless.32 

Remembering Hiroshima as Nuclear Holocaust
The nuclear age dawned in 1945 with dropping of the first nuclear bomb on the vibrant city of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 with its 300,000 population, reducing into dust and ashes it within the first second. It was beginning of the cold war. It was black rain day. After three days Nagasaki City was similarly destroyed by another bomb. This time it was a plutonium fission bomb. Those who ordered the use of the bomb decided in cold blood that most desirable target would be a vital war plant employing a large number of workers and closely surrounded by workers’ houses.33  On August 8, 1945 Radio Tokyo said that all-living things, human and animals were literally "seared to death". The Radio Tokyo further said:

The major part of Hiroshima is destroyed. The destructive force of the new weapon is indescribable, as is the terrible devastation it has caused. No definite figure as to the casualties could yet be provided from a city, which was now a "disastrous ruin". Those outdoors were burnt to death. And those indoor were killed by indescribable pressure and heat with houses and buildings smashed, including emergency facilities, medical authorities have their hands full.34 

The New York Times said:
The United States may have to reap the whirlwind soon by the atom bomb. We have been the first to introduce this weapon… which may bring us quick victory", but will sow the seeds of hate more widely than ever."35 

The result of nuclear holocaust gave birth to many myths. But the most pernicious was that nuclear weapons had great military utility. This led to nuclear arms race where over 55,000 nuclear warheads were held in the arsenals of the five nuclear weapons power by 1988, mostly by the two primary weapon states viz. the United States and former USSR now Russia.36  The nuclear holocaust does not recognize any aspect of humanism or humanist philosophy. It only projects its devastation capability of a nation or group of nations. Nuclear weapons are so frightful, carrying as they do the capability of destroying the human race beyond recognition.

Global Nuclear Weapons Stock
Dropping of atom bomb over Hiroshima and Nagasaki also heralded the era of nuclear age which accelerated development, building and maintaining nuclear arsenals – weapons built throughout human history combined. The U.S. alone spent at least $5.5 trillion (in 1996 dollars).37  How much the former USSR and other nuclear powers devoted their resources may not be revealing.38  The United States, the former Soviet Union and the smaller nuclear-weapons states developed and deployed huge armaments.39  The global stock of nuclear weapons rose at 69,000 nuclear warheads in 1986, "containing an explosive yield of 18 billion tons of TNT or 3.6 tons for every human being".

Global Nuclear Weapons Stockpiles, 1945-9740 

Peace and Disarmament in the 20th Century
Hugo Grotius41  in his work "The Law of War and Peace" said:
'I observed everywhere in Christendom lawlessness in warfare of which even barbarous nations would be ashamed.'

History of warfare reveals that human societies have been making efforts to civilize warfare but achieved limited success. Governments have to promote the rule of law in international relations, provide for avenues of peaceful settlement of conflicts, impose strict rules regarding the conduct of war, (codifying the expected behaviour of combatants towards each other), specifying the need to spare non-combatants and trying to limit the "unnecessary suffering" that weapons are capable of inflicting" and create institution of common good.

If the 21st century is to become a peace-ensuring century it has to look towards international law. There are various international instruments such as regional conventions, agreements, declarations on human rights about 70 in numbers.43  Although many countries still have not signed and ratified these legal instruments. Human rights have been the part and parcel of these legal instruments and most transformative factor in the age of science and advanced technology.

Disarmament or limiting the use of force is guided by the spirit and sole consideration of survival of human race and thus, humanity needs international norms outlawing the use of force. One of the significant achievements of the twentieth century is declaration of use of forces as illegal except in self-defence. Although it is still being violated by the UN Charter states inspite of the commitments that "all Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state…"

The Nuremberg principles for conducting "Nuremberg Trial" are very important in the context of modern history of international relations. For the first time a court made it unequivocally clear that in order to safeguard peace and common humanity, individuals can be punished directly under international law for serious violations of fundamental international rules without taking into consideration the law and office they held in their country.45 

During half a century or less, world have made sincere attempts to control the spread and use of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction. In this regard relevant international instruments now include the ‘Partial Test Ban Treaty, 1963’; ‘the Treaty For the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America, 1967 (the Treaty of Tlatelolco)’; ‘the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, 1968 (NPT)’; ‘the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, 1972’; ‘the Biological Weapons convention, 1972’; ‘the SALT II Treaty, 1979’; and ‘the South Pacific Nuclear-Free Zone Treaty, 1985’.46  All these treaties have made significant contribution in the interest of peace.

Some progress has been made and in this regard decisions of Argentina, Brazil and South Africa to halt and reverse nuclear weapon development programmes are notable. The decisions of China and France and South Africa to sign the Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1993 after decades of efforts and due to global convention banning the development, stockpiling and the use of chemical weapons are notable.47  Declaring moratoria in nuclear-explosives as testing being observed by four declared nuclear weapon states and also reductions in the nuclear arsenals of the United States and the former Soviet Union under the 1991 and 1993 "Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties" (START I and START II)48  have contributed in arms control efforts for the cause of humanism and securing peace for the mankind. On Elimination of nuclear weapons, the Commission on Global Governance aptly said:

The international community should reaffirm its commitment to progressively eliminate nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction from all nations, and should initiate a programme to make that goal a reality in ten to fifteen years. In the meantime, the processes of surveillance, monitoring and reducing the use of weapons should be significantly strengthened.49 

New World Order vis-à-vis New World Society or Global Village
The age old India’s philosophy – emphasises on universal brotherhood and in this regard whole world is one family, and in essence the basis of world society. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan said:

If we are to help the present society to grow organically into a world order, we must make it depend on the universal and enduring values which are implanted in the human heart, that each individual is sacred, that we are born for love and not hate. We must recognise the worth and inalienable rights of the individual as supreme and proclaim that sovereignty resides not in the state but in man. This is the meaning of the Declaration of Human Rights. The state is the servant of the people. If these principles are to guide us, we must try to settle disputes peacefully protect nations against the use of lawless force and develop modes of communication, which will permit various civilisations to enrich and not destroy one another.50 

Thomas Paine also observed:
The world is my country,
All mankind are my brethren,
To do good is my religion,
I believe in one God and no more.

In the twentieth century particularly in the seventies brought in to limelight the concept of ‘New World Economic Order’ (NWEO) and nineties gave birth to the concept of ‘New World Order’ (NWO)51 . According to George Bush, former US President, both world order concepts were "doomed to failure" as one war propounded by the underdogs and the other by the most powerful man in the most powerful country and the debates on the world order "scarcely draws on NWEO debates of the post decades".52  George Bush emphasised on the issue relating to restructuring of the international system, redertimination of international political institutions and change in the hegemonistic relationship.53  However, other issues also relate to the new world order such as internationalisation of capital or the development of a global society for solving global economic problems, environmental problems and also reorganisation of international political institutions following termination of East-west conflict.54  All these matters of vital importance raise the question about future of the nation/territorial state or alternatively the internationalisation of statehood.55 

The two world wars in the last century and the international economic collapse between the wars convinced and forced to think the political thinkers in the industrialised countries that an increase in wealth could not be achieved by sealing off national economies but could be achieved only by a "politically secured globalisation of economic activity".56  In this regard Bretton Woods System, the United Nations, GATT, and now WTO created the preconditions for such a process, which require the fastest and much needed developments of international state functions.57 

The collapse of the international socialist system and the integration of these countries in to Western "international state", however, brought hope for the creation of a "New World Order" which was nothing more than the actual globalisation of the system which came into existence and developed after the Second World War.58  The new world order needs the "World State" and "World State" needs a "World Society" as an integral part of social organisations and responsibilities. The central requirement for the new world order is creation of "global statehood" consisting of bodies which must be invested with comprehensive and wide reaching authority59  for the execution of their decisions in the global interest.

The New World Order must have global perspectives and abjure use of force to avoid any kind of world-wide catastrophe as a means of political change. Any global change is only possible if the process of increased development of global socialisation is given place in the top of agenda of global socialisation which needs "global statehood" without any reservation. Although global statehood will be the subject of intensive social and political conflicts. But global statehood can succeed well if it takes into consideration all the rational approaches for improving socio-economic perspectives of the underprivileged on a world-wide scale and ecologically oriented sustainable development. It is in crux a German scholar rightly observed:

There is no reason to presume that the transfer of political sovereignty to global authorities will proceed in a more conflict-free, direct and planned manners than did the crystalisation of the liberal nation-states from 1215 (Magna Carta) to the present day… There is also no guarantee that this proceed will succeed. But I cannot see any chance of these globalisation processes being reversed without causing a global catastrophe.60 

The World Society owes its origin to John Burton who developed it "on the basis of his sociological examination of forms of society and the possibility of their transformation at the level of international relations".61  Burton’s view and efforts have been to overthrow or defeat ‘state-centric view of the world’ expressed in the very name of disciplined international relations. According to Niklas Luhman, the world society as something that already exists which constitutes not only world-wide expansion of norms or in real interaction on a global scale, but through the possibility of world-wide interaction.62  Another thinker – Martin sees world society in terms of global regulation of requirements.63  His concept of world society perceives "the need for much closer inter-state co-operation".64  Martin observed:

As global social contexts are formed, so it becomes more and more necessary to raise the quality of inter-state relations to a new level"… It would be functionalist fallacy to assert that whatever is necessary will automatically be generated (by the system). Rather, the global situation is to be interpreted as world society in the sense that these actors who draw the appropriate conclusions, for instance by demanding increased inter-state co-operation".65 

There is another concept – ‘international society’ which is very close to the concept of world society. International society develops out of the international system in the following manner.66 

By an international society we mean a group of states (or more generally, a group of independent political communities) which not merely form a system, in the sense that the behaviours of each is a necessary factor in the calculation of the others, but also have established by dialogue and consensus common rules and institutions, and recognise their common interest in maintaining these arrangements.

The figure 567  below shows concepts viz., ‘International System’ ‘International Society’ – World society’ and their trans-border relationship with different degrees of complexes.

Figure

The figure below shows changes in international relations as a process of global society – formation which is actually development of a world society which is formed beyond the mere intensification of interdependence and interaction.

International societies do perform well when they carve out and follow well-defined principles and programmes of community-formation. In this regard the good example is of western states during East-West conflict. European integration leading to formation of the European Union based on strategically coincidence of interests (society formation) cultural background of people of European countries. The next question posed is whether such a union or society formation is possible at the global level. The United Nations Chapter reiterates the desire of nations to save the mankind from path of violence, bloodshed and destruction, that’s why Preamble to the Charter provides "save succeeding generations from the scourge of war" which have already taken heavy toll of human lives in last two world wars and thereafter. To protect human rights has so far pursued within the U.N. framework and policies.

The figure below  indicates well about society formation.

Role of International Law or Strengthening the Rule of Law Globally
The founding father of the United Nations drafted the Charter of the United Nations, and in their minds, the central theme was "the rule of law world-wide" should be ensured to save the humankind from the future dangers of war and destruction. They established International Court of Justice popularly known as the ‘World Court’ – as the "cathedral of law" in the global system or teachings of "Upanishads" the World Court to follow. The Commission on Global Governance (1995) said:

The rule of law has been a critical civilising influence in every free society. It distinguishes a democratic from a tyrannical society, it secures liberally and justice against repression; it elevates equality above dominion, it empowers the weak against the unjust claims of the strong. Its restraints, no less than the moral precepts it asserts, are essential to the well being of a society, both collectively and to individuals within it. Respect for the rule of law is certainly needed in the emerging global neighbourhood.70 

International law, until the post war period, suffered as a global concept which was centred on Europe in order to serve European interests. Therefore, developing countries in particular have been of the opinion that "international law was both based on Christian values and designed to advance Western expansion." It was made in Europe, by European jurists to serve European ends".71  But the developing states or any state in any region of the world, cannot afford to go against in rules, norms and practices of international law irrespective of a bias towards European values, influence and progress.

However, international law has been under constant development and closely associated with the main objectives of the United Nations, which is set down right in the first sentence of the preamble to its Chapter "to safeguard future generations from the scourge of war". The belief of creating and maintaining peace and faith in the rule of law are found in many places in the operating part of the Charter, such as in Article 1, section 1, in which states are bound to resolve their conflicts by peaceful means "in conformity with the principles of justice and international law". However, the UN mentions "the progressive development of international law and its codification" in the first place when it provides the powers of the General Assembly (Article 13, Section 1a).

The basic structure of international law continues to develop inspite of time to time challenges it faced. Sovereign states are integral and "basic building blocks of international system"72  and continue to exercise their rights inspite of development of world legal order which has made significant process. In the 20th century ever since the UN Charter was brought in force, the world body has been facing uncertainty about existence and content of international legal standards.73  The global developments directly related with the mankind in the 20th century such as overpopulation, world-wide migration, environmental protection, growing disparity in the world economic system, international terrorism, drug trafficking and arms race, arms trading, poverty and violation of human rights are just some of problems which are mentionable in the context of challenges to international law. In spite of the challenges international law has evolved techniques to meet them. Standards may be set by instruments such as resolutions of some international organisations that are technically non-binding but in fact they have considerable influence in shaping the course of present and future course of action in the interest of mankind.

All said and done, the United Nations’ performance in the last fifty years calls for recognition, appreciation and thanks for defending the cause of suffering humanity and adoption of humanism in its approaches and functioning. It is aptly said:

The United Nations has taken seriously its task of developing further international law in the spirit of the UN Charter – i.e. in the spirit of peace and humanity. Of course, this will remain a permanent task. Never will one be able to regard it as completed. But what the United Nations has achieved in the field of international law in fifty years – in terms of the history of the world, a relatively short period of time – is indeed impressive.74 

International Humanitarian Law and Humanitarian Action
After World War II, the community of nations ratified and updated version of the Geneva Convention with a view and hope of creating a sound legal instruments which would preserve human dignity even in times of war. Their main consideration was to respect the fundamental rights of the individual in armed conflicts irrespective of international in nature or otherwise and to limit the use of force to contain enemy. Their resolve found place in the two Additional Protocols of 1977.

The fear of war or wars has not vanished in spite of the high hopes people have placed on the United Nations Charter. It is said:

They (wars) inflict appalling suffering on an ever growing proportion on individuals who are not or are no longer involved in the hostilities, be they war-wounded, prisoners or the host of civilians subjected to abuse by one side or the other, and all too often forced to flee the war zone and seek an increasingly precarious refuge in a neighbouring country.

In order to control violence in situations of armed conflict, the body of international humanitarian law is intended to preserve in all circumstances the dignity of the individual. Even an enemy must be preserved in all circumstances and should be given a humane treatment. The application of humanitarian law, of which basis is solely humanism in all-pervasive forms, provides four type of complementary action.77 

a. preventive action to develop the law and ensure that combatants comply with it by spreading knowledge of its provisions;
b. remedial action among victims to limit the consequences of any violations;
c. reactive action to put a stop to on going violations by making immediate representations to the authorities; and
d. punitive action to prosecute violations already committed and punishes the culprits.

In an ideal world respect for law should be enough to provide security and protection to individuals. A thinker on humanitarian law observed:

Over a century ago, however, our world is far from ideal and war is a particularly good time for abandoning illusions. In the thick of fighting and in the prevailing climate of fear and hatred, men and women and children are subjected to atrocities which violate their fundamental rights … The role can be fulfilled only by humanitarian action which is independent and neutral and which is accepted by the very people committing offences.

India’ Foreign Policy
The basic elements of India’s foreign policy in the words of Pt. Nehru, who said in the broadcast to the nation on 7th September, 1946 which can be summarised as follows:

We propose, as far as possible, to keep away from the power of politics of groups, aligned against one another, which have led in the past two World Wars and which may again lead to disasters on an even vaster scale. We believe that peace and freedom are indivisible and the denial of freedom anywhere must endanger freedom elsewhere and led to conflict and war. We are particularly interested in the emancipation of colonial and dependent countries and peoples, and in the recognition in theory and practice of equal opportunities for all races… We seek no dominion over other and we claim no privileged position over other peoples. But we do claim equal and honourable treatment for our people wherever they may go, and we cannot accept any discrimination against them.79 

India has been visualising and emphasizing to build the country’s economy and in this endeavour peace is considered to be the supreme necessity. In this inter-dependent world India felt that any kind of trouble would disturb her plans for development. India’s policy has been that freedom like peace, is indivisible and that there can be no peace if freedom is denied to certain countries. That is why India always supported struggle against colonialism, political and economic exploitation, rampant discrimination, injustices and indignities. Humanism is the sheet anchor of India’s foreign policy which is being pursued since independence in particular.

However, India’s foreign policy of non-alignment is also linked to assert and obtain prestige and honour for her as a nation and to develop her distinct status in the family of nations to work ceaselessly for human good.

World Parliament - A Necessity not a Rhetoric
Again, it is to be reiterated, that all the noble hearted men and women must get together to form one family in the real sense to establish permanent place and renounce war and destruction in any form whatsoever. This project of world-wide nature is to be perceived far beyond the limits of the United Nations which is also to some extent working on the principle of World Government and General Assembly as a World Parliament. To establish a World Parliament sincere efforts are needed to realize the hopes and aspirations of the entire human race. In this regard Late Smt. Indira Gandhi way back in 1984 on Provisional World Parliament aptly expressed:

The world is becoming more and more interdependent. Developments in communication, problems of equitable distribution of the World’s natural resources and the common dangers posed by the increase in conventional and nuclear armaments demand that mankind must act as one. A just international order is inescapable necessity for men’s survival. Such an order must rest on equal respect for all nations as well as equal opportunity for each people to develop to its fullest potential. Enlightened representatives of nations must develop international conventions which will make it possible for all sovereign nations to cede some of their powers out of their free will to international institutions in its confidence that their dignity and just interests will never be compromised.80 

World Parliament seems to be idealistic proposition. The formation of League of Nations was also in the same position when it was in ideal form, but it came into existence and now it is consigned to the archive of the history of ideas and nations. Formation of the United Nations in 1945 was also an international attempt to meet the exigencies of time and age to secure peace and security for the people and nations. Globalisation, which makes the economic inequality of states, the focal point of the analysis, becomes a reality if the World Government and World Parliament come into being. The advancement in science and technology have made the world a very small place - a global village or global neighbourhood. The nation states have become non-entity or stable form of human organization at a time when the cementing forces on the lives and affairs of men were religion, language, culture, limited to a particular geographical boundaries or region81 . There is great transformation in the thinking for the new world order and enlightened leadership to have a global civil society. The global civil society is best expressed as non-governmental movement82 . Before a real World Parliament comes into existence one suggestion is to establish "an assembly of the people" as a deliberative and energetic body to complement the General Assembly of the UN which is representatives of the governments83 . There should be an Assembly of Parliamentarians consisting of representatives elected by existing national legislatures from among their members and the subsequent establishment of a World Assembly through direct election by the people.84  An Assembly of Parliamentarians could function as a Constituent Assembly of the people. An Assembly of Parliamentarians can not be the answer for the emerging need for involving new actors or leaders.85  The Assembly will work side by side the General Assembly of the UN for global dialogue among Parliamentarians.86  Two organizations viz., ‘Inter-Parliamentary Union’ and ‘Parliamentarians for Global Actions’ are working as international or global organizations which can be of great help in the development of World Parliament in the near future. The World Parliament should foster the basic value of all humanity viz., respect for life, liberty, justice and equity, mutual respect, caring and integrity and spirituality and principles of non-violence, tolerance non-discrimination. Thinkers of the World Parliament should keep before them a set of common rights and responsibilities, which the Commission of Global Governance has formulated and they are:87 

It should encompass the right of all people to:

• a secured and dignified life;

• equitable treatment;

• an opportunity to earn a fair living and provide for their own welfare;

• the definition and preservation of their differences through peaceful means;

• participation in governance at all levels;

• free and fair petition for redress of gross injustice;

• equal access to information; and

• equal access to the global commons.

Furthermore, the Commission recommends that at the same time all people owe a responsibility to :

• contribute to the common good;

• consider impact of their actions on the security and welfare of others;

• promote equity, including gender equity;

• protect the interest of future generations by pursuing sustainable development and safeguarding the global commons;

• preserve humanity’s cultural and intellectual heritage;

• be active participants in governance; and

• work to eliminate terrorism, drug trafficking and corruption loomed large at global level.

Summation
However, sovereignty has been the crucial element in the working of inter-state system. But in an interdependent world, the notions of territoriality, independence and non-intervention have lost some of their meanings.89  In certain areas such as global commons or subjects of interest to the people of the world, the sovereignty must be exercised collectively.90  The principle of sovereignty and non-intervention must be exercised and adopted in ways that recognize the need to balance the rights of states with the rights of people and the interests of nations with the interest of "global neighbourhood" or new world order in relation to new world society.91 

The international community should work wholeheartedly to reaffirm its commitment to eliminate nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction and in this regard all nuclear power states must work to achieve this goal.

• Nuclear disarmament should effectively proceed on the following lines:

• the earliest possible ratification and implementation of existing agreements on nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction;

• the indefinite extension of the Non-Proliferation Treaty;

• the conclusion of a treaty to end all nuclear testing;

• the initiation of talks among all declared nuclear powers to establish a process to reduce and eventually eliminate all nuclear arsenals without any discrimination; and

• CTBT needs to be signed by all the nuclear power states without any discrimination and India’s stand should be understood well.

The 21st century needs global leadership that is proactively positive and forceful, not simply functional but forward looking in terms of interest and welfare of future generations for whom the present is held in trust. It needs visionary leaders sustained by ethics and revealed political courage to serve the humankind in reality and not in words. That leadership should look beyond domestic walls, country, race, religion, culture, language, life style. It must accept the concept of human constituency to serve with the sense of responsibility towards the establishment of new world society in a new world order. Let the world beware that the positive spirit of men can cope with the challenge of living together at peace in the salvation of the problems of men in today’s interdependent world. Let me end with an ancient prayer:

Let all here be happy;
Let all be healthy;
Let all see the face of happiness;
Let no one be unhappy;
Let prevail
Peace! Peace! Peace!92